The Serpent and the Goddess at the Riverrenaissance Art
Artworks and Artists of Early Renaissance
Progression of Art
1426-27
Expulsion from the Garden of Eden
This fresco portrays a nude Adam and Eve equally they are expelled from the Garden of Eden. They walk out through an arch from which black lines emanate, representing the angry voice of God, with a red clad angel belongings a black sword hovering above to usher them on their way. Adam buries his face in his hands, his trunk language and facial expression conveying deep anguish. Eve 's face is open mouthed and stricken, her easily held in a Venus Pudica pose to cover her breasts and pubic expanse as if in shame. The groundwork is bare, just earth and a singular rock formation, evoking the hard fate ahead for the expunged couple. The limerick is remarkably elegant, emphasizing the pair's banishment with heightened emotion. The line dividing earth and bluish sky diagonally runs from left to right to highlight the pair'due south forward motion, every bit their opposing feet mirror each other along the path. The nudity of the ii figures, classically proportioned, is not sensual but suggests the starkness of their situation, stripped of God's favor.
This scene is part of a fresco bicycle of Biblical scenes in the Brancacci Chapel painted by Masaccio, as well as Masolino and other artists. In depicting the two naked, the artist departed from the Biblical account in which they wore fig leaves, and also, boldly, created the beginning nudes in painting since the Roman era. He also added the arch and reduced the multiple cherubs mentioned in the Biblical account to focus on one angel.
The scene resides at the left entrance to the Chapel hall, condign the beginning paradigm encountered by visitors, launching them into the famous narrative, as Adam and Eve walk out of the arch that is a painted extension of an architectural column. The creative person's inclusion of the architecture into the pictorial infinite was non his only radical innovation. His use of linear perspective, chiaroscuro (the strategic use of shadow and light to create depth), and a realistic figurative approach were in straight opposition to the standard apartment iconographic fashion of presenting religious stories and figures. The outcome is that Adam and Eve become humanized, rather than relegated on the devotional pedestal as sacred symbols. The pair are fully embodied and expressive, inhabiting existent infinite, their shoulders bent, and their steps weighed down by the enormity of their expulsion. Art critic Clyde Haberman noted that Masaccio "broke with medieval traditions by giving raw realism to human forms and expressions. No one can doubt the anguish of his Adam and Eve every bit they are expelled from Paradise."
Subsequent artists would go on to envision their own work within this new aesthetic prototype of Masaccio'due south vision. Both Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci extensively visited the Chapel to written report and sketch Masaccio's human figures, which da Vinci chosen "perfect." Afterward artists like the sculptor Henry Moore likewise studied his works.
Fresco - Church of Santa Maria del Reddish, Florence
1426-27
The Holy Trinity
This fresco depicts the Holy Trinity. Christ, crucified, is the central figure with God the Father standing behind him. A small white dove above Christ's caput represents the Holy Spirit. Within the architectural niche that holds the iii, Mary can also be seen, dressed in blue on the left while John the Disciple stands at the correct, both gazing upwards at Christ in devotion. On either side of the columns, the commissioned piece of work'south unidentified patrons kneel in profile. Below them, a skeleton lies in a tomb bearing the inscription: "I once was what you lot are and what I am yous also volition be," representing a memento mori, or an object that serves as a warning or reminder of the inevitability of death.
Customary to Masaccio'due south piece of work, this piece helped revolutionize painting with its use of i betoken linear perspective, creating the illusion of three-dimensional space. The creative person intentionally aligned the sighting of the fresco with the existing architecture of the church to enhance the trompe 50'oeil issue. To create the work, he used a grid framework etched into the surface, and consulted Brunelleschi on linear perspective, as the perspective of even the nails in the cantankerous show his rigorous approach. The pattern used a Roman triumphal curvation and barrel vault to create a rational just divine space that the life-sized holy figures occupy, while the patrons and the skeleton, placed outside the barrel vault, occupy the space of the viewer. Visitors at the time were amazed at the artist'south power to create a piece of work and so realistic that many thought they were peering into a existent chapel. A visceral feel of the work was spurred, creating an experience of contemplation in regard to mortality and timelessness.
The life-sized figures also present a remarkably naturalistic effect of book, movement, and deep emotional expression. Equally Mary McCarthy, art historian, wrote, "The fresco, with its terrible logic, is like a proof in philosophy or mathematics, God the Father, with His unrelenting optics, being the precept from which everything else irrevocably flows." At the aforementioned time, Mary, her confront solemn, creates a bridge betwixt the divine and the human by looking toward the viewer and gesturing toward her son, providing a way into the sacred realm, through contemplation. As Vasari wrote in his Lives of the Artists (1550) near Masaccio's work, "Everything washed before him tin exist described as artificial, whereas he produces work that is living, realistic and natural."
Fresco - Santa Maria Novella, Florence
1420-36
Dome of Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence Cathedral)
This photograph shows Brunelleschi's famous octagonal dome crowning the Florence Cathedral. Its cherry stone, emblematic of the Florentine love of stonework and Medici reddish, dominates the skyline with one of the world's most recognized and iconic views. Consisting of over 4 1000000 bricks, information technology remains the largest masonry dome in the world.
Brunelleschi'due south architectural genius can exist seen in the structure's sense of buoyancy with its white ribs emphasizing the vertical elevator and the steep curvature narrowing at the top. Brunelleschi also designed the white lantern at its tip, though his friend, the architect Michelozzi, completed information technology in 1461, fifteen years after Brunelleschi's expiry. The dome became a visual symbol of "The New Athens," as Florence dubbed itself, equally information technology evoked a sense of classical restraint and proportion, echoing the octagonal shape of the cathedral beneath and drawing it heavenward.
The dome was a revolutionary masterpiece, as the architect dispensed with both the internal scaffolding and the external supports (like buttresses) that were previously thought necessary. Instead, he created a dome within a dome, thus inventing a new system of support, where bricks lain in an inverted arch of herringbone pattern directed weight outward rather than downward. He besides manufactured the engineering he needed to materialize his project, including the first mechanical hoist and, later, the castello, or horizontal crane. Other structural innovations included the use of a catenary arch, a type of pointed arch, for back up and internal wood, stone, and iron chains, formed in octagonals, to work like barrel hoops to hold the dome together.
This work was informed by Brunelleschi's careful written report of the Pantheon (113-125) and other ancient Roman buildings. Nonetheless, in his customary fashion, the architect kept his discoveries to himself, working without notes or plans. As he was subsequently to say, when he practical for and was awarded the kickoff modern patent for a water send vehicle, "nosotros must non bear witness to all and sundry the secrets of the waters flowing in ocean and river, or the devices that work on these waters. Let there be convened a council of experts and masters in mechanical art to deliberate what is needed to compose and construct these works." Because of his enigmatic working fashion, many critics initially deemed his designs incommunicable. He was to prove them wrong. Every bit historian Paulo Galluzi wrote of the Cathedral, "It is 1 of the well-nigh beautiful, technically audacious buildings ever constructed. It unites technology and aesthetics in an astonishingly elegant way. It symbolizes perfectly the union of scientific discipline and of art."
All the architects of the next generation were influenced by Brunelleschi's piece of work, and Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated past both his architecture and the applied science he invented.
Sandstone, marble, brick, iron, wood - Florence
1430-40
David
This iconic v human foot tall sculpture shows the Biblical hero David, depicted equally a Classical inspired nude. Wearing just boots and a laurel-ringed Florentine hat, he stands in a jaunty contrapposto pose upon Goliath's severed head, belongings a sword in his right hand, its point resting on a victory wreath. His right leg meets the diagonal of the sword to create a triangular space that emphasizes the sensuous curve of his hip. The overall event is an unusually provocative and intimate rendition of David. With his expression of reverie and an enigmatic smile upon his lips, he jauntily assumes his role as the outset freestanding nude created since the Roman era.
Donatello also revived and refined the classical technique of lost wax casting to create this piece of work. After casting the form, he finished it by paw, adding a thin layer of gold to create a lustrous surface with warm tones. A sense of the tactile informs the work, as the sleek smoothness of the youth's pare contrasts with the rough materials of Goliath's hair and helmet. Ane of the wings of Goliath's helmet extends up the back of David's leg, as if caressing him, adding a homoerotic chemical element to the work. At the same fourth dimension on the fallen giant'due south helmet the sculptor depicted a scene of Bacchus, the Greek god of wine and excess, suggesting that the virtue of beauty has conquered the infidel warrior.
Having recently defeated the larger and more powerful city-land of Milan, Florence identified itself with the story of the shepherd male child who defeated the giant warrior Goliath with a single rock from his slingshot. Later depictions of David by Andrea del Verrocchio, Bartolomeo Bellano, and most notably, Michelangelo and Bernini, took Donatello'southward sculpture every bit the starting point, whether drawing upon or countering its influence. Vasari wrote of the work, "This figure is so natural in its vivacity and softness that artists find information technology inappreciably possible to believe it was not moulded on the living course." Contemporary criticism in The New York Times stated, "Donatello's sculptures are startling, dramatic and unpredictable.... a sustained meditation on time."
Bronze - Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
c.1438-45
The Annunciation
This fresco, depicting the moment at which an angel announces to Mary that she will be the female parent of Jesus, has a classical simplicity. Sitting on a wooden stool in the cloister, Mary, her class a subtle contrast of nighttime robes that frame her delicate pinkish tunic, leans forward listening intently. The angel too leans forrad, i knee bent, as his robe unfolds in softly curving vertical lines. Both figures have their arms folded across their chests in the shape of a cantankerous, creating a feeling of intimate understanding, emphasized past the matching pink hues of their clothing, curtilage walls, floor, and columns. The setting is devoid of many extraneous details, just a patch of grass on the left and a wooden fence with Tuscan cypresses behind it.
The emphasis on an ordinary but intimate moment was radically new and reflected Humanism'south appreciation of the individual. It also reflects the Early Renaissance'southward distinct move abroad from traditional medieval imagery of religious narratives, removing the barriers between the sacred and the everyday in means that invited viewers to feel office of the devotional tales in more familiar ways. The perspective, emphasizing the repeating diagonal line of Corinthian columns on the left, the arch framing Mary, and the foreground's horizontal edging and column, emphasizes the sacred space the two inhabit, while the viewer stands outside, as if listening in upon a individual chat.
The Medici family commissioned this work, along with more than 50 additional frescos and a new altarpiece in 1440, to consummate the redesign of the friary of San Marco, which also included the outset public library since the Roman Era. Fra Angelico, a Dominican friar, painted small frescos of Biblical scenes in the monks' cells to aid in devotional meditation. His intention was to bring the sacred into the monks' everyday physical reality, and he painted this scene, 1 of the terminal frescoes to be painted, in front of the staircase, so that monks returning to their cells would encounter it showtime.
Michael Glover, the art critic, has noted, "austere and more intimate in mood... The whole scene is a masterpiece of quiet understatement."
Fresco - Museum of San Marco, Florence
c.1455
Flagellation of Christ
This painting, divided vertically down the middle by Roman columns, depicts the flagellation of Christ in the background on the left in contrast to three aristocratic Florentine men engaged in conversation in the foreground on the right. In the artist's time, religious subjects that employed perspective would normally focus the vanishing point central on Christ. This innovative employ of perspective, though, further emphasized the division between the 2 scenes, conveying the dissonance between 2 worlds; the self-preoccupation of the important and wealthy ruling form of Florence implicitly critiqued past the suffering of Christ taking place in the side by side space. Furthermore, the orthogonal lines divide the frame vertically and, contrasting with the red horizontal bands, create a sectionalisation betwixt interior and outside space. A carve up calorie-free source is portrayed in each scene, furthering a sense of the enigmatic relationship between the 2. Various scholarly interpretations have tried to identify the various figures depicted, suggesting the power of the work to both suggest and resist narrative.
Information technology was notable as an early case of oil painting on a small console, for which Della Francesca departed from the large frescos, painted with tempera, favored by the artists of his day. A precision of detail and line is evinced in his treatment of the architectural motifs, every bit seen in the intricate slats of the building on the far right, and the lines of the figures, with a curiously modern result. The work conveys a sense of surreal calm and gild, its almost architectural harmony contrasting with the flagellation. With its precise delineation and scientific use of perspective, the artist, who was also a mathematician, created a naturalistic work that is both convincing, and yet almost mod in its noise.
The art historian Kenneth Clark was to rank the painting as one of the x finest paintings of all time.
Oil and tempera on panel - Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino, Italy
1465-74
Photographic camera Degli Sposi Frescoes
This fresco depicts an illusory oculus, opening to reveal a painted sky. The oculus is ringed with figures looking down into the room below. An orange tree and a peacock, both symbolizing Juno, the Roman goddess of wedlock, perch prominently on the edge.. A number of Cupids - one placing a wreath on his head, one property an pointer while looking out at the sky, and a third holding an apple tree that seems as if it might of a sudden drop, band the balustrade. Three housemaids, clustered beside the orange tree, gaze down smiling. On the other side of the tree, an aristocratic young woman stands beside a slave woman in a striped turban.
Mantegna's fresco was groundbreaking for the time equally information technology was the first example of di sotto in sù, or illusionistic ceiling painting. It also employed trompe l'oeil to create a scene where the architecture and painting become indistinguishable from each other within the fictive infinite. He incorporated the fresco into the building past painting the ceiling ribs and lozenges to resemble marble, and the triangular areas at the edge to look like mosaics.
He also used farthermost foreshortening in the figures to tweak the viewer'due south perception of the height of the ceiling. This work embodied Alberti's argument in his De Pictura (1435) that a painting should be a window into reality.
The Gonzaga family commissioned this piece for their Camera degli Sposi, a small square reception room in their Ducal Palace. In addition to the ceiling fresco, he also painted The Court Scene (1465-1471), portraying the Gonzaga family on the north wall, and The Meeting (1465-1471), with two other smaller scenes on the west wall, and the last two walls with a decorative pattern.
Mantegna's work greatly influenced not only Renaissance artists like Raphael, but also artists of the Bizarre and Rococo movements.
Fresco - Palazzo Ducale di Mantova, Mantua, Italy
c. 1480
Lamentation over the Dead Christ
This remarkable epitome shows the dead Christ, lying upon a marble slab, his lower body shrouded by a slice of linen, as the stricken faces of St. John and the Virgin Mary peer over him. The extreme foreshortening and bright details, like the smash holes visible in Christ's feet, result in an experience of intense intimacy for the viewer. Christ becomes less a divine figure, and merely an affronting human cadaver, His flesh is hyperreal, and a harrowing feeling becomes farther emphasized by the bloodlike stain of scarlet that imbues the scene. A static stillness is created by the vertical lines of Christ's body and the edge of the slab assorted with the horizontals of the eternalize, the bottom edge of the slab, and the creases at his elbows and ribs. The placement of the scene within a window frame, cropping the viewer from the mourners, creates the claustrophobic sense of being in a morgue. Also known equally The Expressionless Christ or The Lamentation, the image was painted post-obit the death of 2 of the artist's sons and was meant to convey suffering and grief.
The artist's mastery of foreshortening to create a pictorial airplane that becomes architectural, as well as the piece of work'south near graphic directness, was not simply ground breaking for its time, but potently modern. Mantegna'due south sculptural sense of the human effigy is apparent in the prototype, but his radical innovation was his sense of the painting as part of a total spatial illusion. His techniques influenced artists of his generation but likewise later masters, similar Leonardo da Vince, Albrecht Dürer, and Correggio. Contemporary art historian Nicholas Play tricks Weber has chosen the piece of work, "an unsettling masterpiece," where "Mantegna'southward vision of agony equally a prelude to resurrection and celebration resounds."
Tempera on canvass - Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan, Italy
1481-82
Primavera
This masterpiece is a complex and mysterious allegorical work, depicting figures from classical Greek and Roman mythology in the garden of Venus. The goddess of love, framed past an intricate nimbus of sacred myrtle, stands in the center, raising her correct hand in a gesture of welcome associated with the Virgin Mary from the Annunciation. The goddess, traditionally shown nude, wears the discrete clothing of a married adult female. Above her, a blindfolded Cupid aims his arrows toward the iii graces, who wear diaphanous robes and dance, their easily entwined. To the far left, stands the god Mercury, looking upward every bit he reaches toward ane of the golden fruits that glow like orbs in the overarching canopy.
On the far right, the artist has combined ii myths from the Roman poet Ovid. In the commencement myth Zephyrus, the god of the wind, depicted here with blue greenish pare and puffed out cheeks, raped the nymph Chloris. In the painting, her nude figure, clothed in a diaphanous gown, falls forwards, with feet that have already left the ground. As she turns back to wait at him, tendrils and flowers emerge from her mouth, leading forward to the figure of Flora, the goddess of leap. The myth states, that full of remorse, Zephyrus changed Chloris into the goddess of spring.
This work, commissioned by the Medici family for a hymeneals celebration, broke new ground by borrowing from classical mythology for its subject. Merely it also reflects the integration of scientific ascertainment into art equally the artist depicted over 500 identifiable establish species into the piece. Each detail in the work is allusive in pregnant. For case, the golden oranges allude to the symbol of the Medici family, the orbs of Hesperus from Greek myth, and to the Garden of Eden. The result is, every bit art historian Gloria Fossi has written, "1 of the most written about, and most controversial paintings in the earth."
Visually the work too presents an idyll of dazzler, its female figures depicted with a linear rhythm, soft contours, and subtle colour, to create what art historian Kenneth Clark described every bit, "one of the most personal evocations of concrete beauty in the whole of art."
Tempera on panel - The Uffizi Gallery, Florence
1482
Christ Handing the Keys of the Kingdom to St. Peter
The scene is meant to embody the New Attestation moment when Jesus said to Saint Peter, "Upon this rock I will build my church... and I will give y'all the keys to the kingdom of sky." The fresco focuses equally on that biblical narrative every bit well as the architecture, emphasized by the gold diagonal lines of perspective extending toward The Temple of Solomon in the groundwork. Christ is emphasized slightly in scale and past placement, outlined and gear up autonomously by the space that surrounds him, and the diagonal that leads to the Temple'southward archway of the edifice, which begins at the top of his caput. The key is direct in line with the Temple entrance, and isolated, too, within its own space.
Behind, in the middle distance, two scenes from the New Testament are depicted. The scene on the left shows Christ and the disciples paying the tribute money, and the scene on the right shows Christ escaping from an attempted stoning. Ii identical arches, resembling the Arch of Constantine, built by the Roman Emperor who in 313 legalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan, flank the Temple in the groundwork. Beyond the plaza, mountains recede into the distance, due to the creative person's employment of aerial perspective. Behind Christ on the left, and behind Peter on the right, illustrious figures of the era, including a self-portrait of the creative person, mingle with the disciples. The fundamental ane bespeak perspective married with the calculated composition of the painting'due south subjects, create a perfectly counterbalanced symmetry.
The architecture of the scene reflects many things elemental to the Early Renaissance period. The piece of work, commissioned by Pope Sixtus Four for the Vatican, was meant to illustrate the doctrine of churchly succession and indicate the rising importance of papal patronage in commissioning grand works of religious significance. The manual of divine authority from Christ to Peter also harkens to the same transmission from Temple to the Vatican. Lastly, information technology is an case of the principles of science, mathematics, and pattern being injected into art past the leading artists of the time.
The elegant figures in their refined clothes, flowing pall, and frail particular reflect the influence of Andrea del Verrocchio's figurative treatments on the artist. Vasari was to credit Perugino with creating a new style that blended the Florentine line with a "delicacy blended with color," and the artist'due south sense of visual rhythm was to influence afterward artists, including Vasari himself.
Fresco - Vatican City
1483-85
The Nascence of Venus
This seminal, iconic piece of work, inspired by the Roman poet Ovid's Metamorphoses (8 A.D.), focuses on the birth of Venus, the goddess of honey, riding her scallop crush as she arrives on land. To the right, a female with billowing dress and hair leans toward Venus holding out a swirling red robe to clothe her. Flying at a diagonal and also leaning toward Venus, Zephyrus, the god of the current of air, puffs out his cheeks, blowing her toward the shore, as pink flowers fill up the air around them. Linear flow and movement in the swirling hair of the figures, the billowing draperies that soar along with Zephyrus'south flight, and in the curvilinear forms of the figures accentuate the singularity and centrality of the nude. Some have seen in the spirals and swirls of Venus's carmine hair, Botticelli's allusion to Leon Battista Alberti's words in On Painting, "I am delighted to see seven movements in hair, which is especially pleasing when part of information technology turns in spirals as if wishing to knot itself, waves in the air similar flames, twines effectually itself similar a ophidian, while role rises here, part in that location."
The enigmatic work has compelled multiple descriptions. Vasari identified the immature woman with her arms entwined around Zephyrus's waist as Aura, a mythological figure personifying light breezes. The woman on the right was thought to correspond the Hora of spring, one of 3 such figures who were attendants of Venus. Other scholars connect this work to Botticelli's before Primavera, and have argued that Zephyrus's companion is Chloris, as shown by the symbolism of the flowers, and that the adult female on the right is Flora, the goddess of leap. The artist also employed contemporary political symbolism. The laurel trees and Hora's laurel wreath visually pun upon the name "Lorenzo" of the Medici family who commissioned the work, while the motifs and colors of Hora'southward clothing and the robe she carries insinuate to the Republic of Florence.
The work was innovative for its large calibration, for beingness painted on canvas, as well as it use of alabaster pulverisation to brighten the paint and of golden to create highlights on the wings, the hair, the material, and the shell. Just these innovations were overshadowed by its unprecedented depiction of the female person nude in a infidel setting. While the figure created an impression of classical beauty, the artist has diverged from classical proportions. For instance, her body is off center, and her right leg curves as well far over for her left leg to carry her weight. As the art historian Kenneth Clark noted, "Her differences from antique course are...rhythmic and structural. Her whole body follows the curve of a Gothic ivory. It is entirely without that quality so much prized in classical art, known as aplomb. She is non standing but floating." In this too, the artist was innovative, nigh modern in his willingness to depart from naturalistic depiction in order to limited an imagined internal concept of dazzler. The work shows, as contemporary art historian Frederick Ilchman said, "Botticelli'southward attitude, his yearning to limited ideals of dazzler and man course." The work also is seen to reflect the era'due south Neo-Ideal philosophy that the heed could be fatigued to the knowledge of divine dazzler past contemplation of earthly beauty.
During the High Renaissance, Botticelli's works were eclipsed, and he became relatively unknown in the centuries that followed. The title "Birth of Venus" was given to this painting only in the xixth century when Botticelli'southward works were revived by the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and embraced by the Craft movement. Afterwards this work has become i of the world's near recognizable paintings, and artists including Salvador Dalí, Renée Magritte, Andy Warhol, Jeff Koons, and the Superflat artist Tomoko Nagao have revisited it. The painting has endured fame in popular culture as it has been referenced in motion-picture show, television set, music videos, and has likewise informed the work of fashion designers similar Elsa Schiaparelli and Dolce & Gabbana.
Tempera on panel - The Uffizi Gallery, Florence
1490
Portrait of an One-time Human with His Grandson
This tender portrait vividly evokes a moment of embrace, juxtaposing a man toward the end of his life with a child at his beginning. The older man wears a red fur-lined robe, and the younger, a cerise doublet and cap. Backside them, the wall of the interior room is depicted in black and grey rectangles, framing a window that opens onto a landscape of winding roads through fields that atomic number 82 toward a small church at the lesser of a terraced loma. Next to it, a monolithic stone rises out of a lake. The gilded locks of the boy, echoed in the folds of his doublet, describe the viewer'due south eye up to the window, which, framed by somber grey and black, evokes a feeling of contrast between the two subjects' phases of beingness. The painting creates a poignant moment marked by a sense of mortality.
Ghirlandaio was primarily known for his frescos, oft portraying notable Florentines, every bit seen in his celebrated Tornabuoni Chapel cycle (1485-1490). What he brought to Early Renaissance painting most, though, was a vividly detailed and emotionally expressive portrayal of contemporary life and ordinary people, an emphasis that this singular portrait shares. The homo'due south grayness pilus, the mole on his right brow, and his plain-featured olfactory organ, betoken that he has the skin disorder rhinophyma. These characteristics are depicted with a remarkable realism that made the painting unique for its time. The work also subverted social attitudes, which associated defects in appearance with defects of grapheme, by emphasizing the man's gentle and wise expression and tranquility amore. Art historian Bernard Berenson wrote of this piece of work, "In that location is no more homo picture in the unabridged range of Quattrocento painting, whether in or out of Italia."
Ghirlandaio was besides a notable teacher, every bit his well-nigh distinguished student was Michelangelo.
Tempera on panel - Musée du Louvre, Paris
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Content compiled and written past Rebecca Seiferle
Edited and revised, with Summary and Accomplishments added by Kimberly Nichols
"Early Renaissance Movement Overview and Analysis". [Net]. . TheArtStory.org
Content compiled and written by Rebecca Seiferle
Edited and revised, with Summary and Accomplishments added by Kimberly Nichols
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